Anomie Sociology and People Free Essays

Anomie describes a lack of social norms; â€Å"normlessness†. It describes the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and their community, if under unruly scenarios possibly resulting in fragmentation of social identity and rejection of self-regulatory values. It was popularized by French sociologist Emile Durkheim in his influential book Suicide (1897). We will write a custom essay sample on Anomie: Sociology and People or any similar topic only for you Order Now Durkheim borrowed the word from French philosopher Jean-Marie Guyau. Durkheim never uses the term normlessness; rather, he describes anomie as â€Å"a rule that is a lack of rule†, â€Å"derangement†, and â€Å"an insatiable will†. For Durkheim, anomie arises more generally from a mismatch between personal or group standards and wider social standards, or from the lack of a social ethic, which produces moral deregulation and an absence of legitimate aspirations. This is a nurtured condition: Anomie in common parlance is thought to mean something like â€Å"at loose ends†. The Oxford English Dictionary lists a range of definitions, beginning with a disregard of divine law, through the 19th and 20th century sociological terms meaning an absence of accepted social standards or values. Most sociologists associate the term with Durkheim, who used the concept to speak of the ways in which an individual’s actions are matched, or integrated, with a system of social norms and practices †¦ Durkheim also formally posited anomie as a mismatch, not simply as the absence of norms. Thus, a society with too much rigidity and little individual discretion could also produce a kind of anomie, a mismatch between individual circumstances and larger social mores. Thus, fatalistic suicide arises when a person is too rule-governed, when there is †¦ no free horizon of expectation. Durkheim attempts to explain the function of the division of labor, and makes the observation that it creates social cohesion. The industrial revolution, of course, produced great tension and turmoil, and Durkheim recognized this. He resolved the contradiction by developing the notion of anomie. Anomie is usually translated as normlessness, but it best understood as insufficient normative reg ulation. During periods of rapid social change, individuals sometimes experience alienation from group goals and values. They lose sight of their shared interests based on mutual dependence. In this condition, they are less constrained by group norms. Normative values become generalized, rather than personally embraced. The Sociological Imagination (1959), which is considered Mills’ most influential book on the sociology profession, describes a mindset for studying sociology — the sociological imagination — that stresses being able to connect individual experiences and societal relationships. Mills asserts that a critical task for social scientists is to â€Å"translate private troubles into public issues,† which is something that it is very difficult for ordinary citizens to do. Sociologists, then, rightly connect their autobiographical, personal challenges to social institutions. Social scientists should then connect those institutions to social structure(s) and locate them within a historical narrative. The three components that form the sociological imagination are: History: how a society came to be and how it is changing and how history is being made in it Biography: the nature of â€Å"human nature† in a society; what kinds of people inhabit a particular society Social Structure: how the various institutional orders in a society operate, which ones are dominant, how they are held together, how they might be changing, etc. The Promise Of Sociology C. Wright Mills  · Men now days often feel that their lives are a series of traps. They feel in their worlds they can’t overcome their troubles. According to Mills this is correct.  · You cannot understand the life of an individual or the history of society without understanding both.  · People do not see how the changes in history affect them. The do not see how the ups and downs they experience in their lives are affected by their society.  · People do not see the connection that exists between the patterns in their lives and the course of history. People need a quality of mind to use information to develop reason to make connections between what is going on in the world and what is happening to themselves. He calls this the Sociological Imagination.  · Sociological Imagination allows us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society. That is both its task and its promise. This is the purpose of classical social analysts.  · The most important distinction is between the issues and the troubles. Issues- have to do with matters that transcend these local environments of the individual and the range of his inner life.  · Troubles- occur within the character of the individual and within his range of his immediate relations with others. It has to do with his self and with those areas of social life in which he is directly and personally aware.  · The sociological imagination is supposed to help man to understand that what is happening to themselves is a result of intersections of history and biography within their society. Class consciousness is a term used in social sciences and political theory, particularly Marxism, to refer to the beliefs that a person holds regarding one’s social class or economic rank in society, the structure of their class, and their class interests. Defining a person’s social class can be a determinant for his awareness of it. Marxists define classes on the basis of their relation to the means of production – especially on whether they own capital. Non-Marxist social scientists distinguish various social strata on the basis of income, occupation, or status. Early in the nineteenth century, the labels â€Å"working classes† and â€Å"middle classes† were already coming into common usage. â€Å"The old hereditary aristocracy, reinforced by the new gentry who owed their success to commerce, industry, and the professions, evolved into an â€Å"upper class†. Its consciousness was formed in part by public schools (in the British sense) and Universities. The upper class tenaciously maintained control over the political system, depriving not only the working classes but the middle classes of a voice in the political process. Solidarity is the integration, and degree and type of integration, shown by a society or group with people and their neighbors. It refers to the ties in a society that bind people to one another. The term is generally employed in sociology and the other social sciences. What forms the basis of solidarity varies between societies. In simple societies it may be mainly based around kinship and shared valu es. In more complex societies there are various theories as to what contributes to a sense of social solidarity. According to Emile Durkheim, the types of social solidarity correlate with types of society. Durkheim introduced the terms â€Å"mechanical† and â€Å"organic solidarity† as part of his theory of the development of societies in The Division of Labor in Society (1893). In a society exhibiting mechanical solidarity, its cohesion and integration comes from the homogeneity of individuals—people feel connected through similar work, educational and religious training, and lifestyle. Mechanical solidarity normally operates in â€Å"traditional† and small scale societies. In simpler societies (e. g. tribal), solidarity is usually based on kinship ties of familial networks. Organic solidarity comes from the interdependence that arises from specialization of work and the complementarities between people—a development which occurs in â€Å"modern† and â€Å"industrial† societies. Definition: it is social cohesion based upon the dependence individ uals have on each other in more advanced societies. Although individuals perform different tasks and often have different values and interest, the order and very solidarity of society depends on their reliance on each other to perform their specified tasks. Organic here is referring to the interdependence of the component parts. Thus, social solidarity is maintained in more complex societies through the interdependence of its component parts (e. g. , farmers produce the food to feed the factory workers who produce the tractors that allow the farmer to produce the food) mechanical and organic solidarity, in the theory of the French social scientist Emile Durkheim (1858–1917), the social cohesiveness of small, undifferentiated societies (mechanical) and of societies differentiated by a relatively complex division of labour (organic). Mechanical solidarity is the social integration of members of a society who have common values and beliefs. These common values and beliefs constitute a â€Å"collective conscience† that works internally in individual members to cause them to cooperate. Because, in Durkheim’s view, the forces causing members of society to cooperate were much like the internal energies causing the molecules to cohere in a solid, he drew upon the terminology of physical science in coining the term mechanical solidarity. In contrast to mechanical solidarity, organic solidarity is social integration that arises out of the need of individuals for one another’s services. In a society characterized by organic solidarity, there is relatively greater division of labour, with individuals functioning much like the interdependent but differentiated organs of a living body. Society relies less on imposing uniform rules on everyone and more on regulating the relations between different groups and persons, often through the greater use of contracts and laws. Durkheim dentified two major types of social integration, mechanical and organic. The former refers to integration that is based on shared beliefs and sentiments, while the latter refers to integration that results from specialization and interdependence. These types reflect different ways that societies organized themselves. Where there is little differentiation in the kinds of labor that individuals engage in, integration based on common beliefs is to be found; in societies where work is highly differentiated, solidarity is the consequence of mutual dependence. The distinction reveals Durkheim’s thinking about how modern societies differ from earlier ones, and consequently, how solidarity changes as a society becomes more complex. Societies of mechanical solidarity tend to be relatively small and organized around kinship affiliations. Social relations are regulated by the shared system of beliefs, what Durkheim called the common conscience. Violations of social norms were taken as a direct threat to the shared identity, and so, reactions to deviance tended to emphasize punishment. As a society becomes larger, division of labor increases. A complex organization of labor is necessary, in larger societies, for the production of material life (as Marx suggested). Because people begin to specialize, the basis for the collective conscience is diminished. Solidarity based on the common belief system is no longer possible. Complexity does not lead to disintegration, Durkheim argued, but rather, to social solidarity based on interdependence. Since people are no longer producing all the things that they need, they must interact. Integration results from a recognition that each needs the other. Societies of organic solidarity are arranged around economic and political organizations. Their legal systems regulate behavior based on principles of exchange and restitution, rather than punishment. Manifest and latent functions are social scientific concepts of sociology by Robert K. Merton. Merton appeared interested in sharpening the conceptual tools to be employed in a functional analysis. Manifest functions and dysfunctions are conscious and deliberate, the latent ones the unconscious and unintended. While functions are intended (manifest) or unintended (latent), and have a positive effect on society, dysfunctions are unintended or unrecognized (latent) and have a negative effect on society. Manifest functions are the consequences that people observe or expect. It is explicitly stated and understood by the participants in the relevant action. The manifest function of a rain dance, used as an example by Merton in his 1967 Social Theory and Social Structure, is to produce rain, and this outcome is intended and desired by people participating in the ritual. Latent functions are those that are neither recognized nor intended. A latent function of a behavior is not explicitly stated, recognized, or intended by the people involved. Thus, they are identified observers. In the example of rain ceremony, the latent function reinforces the group identity by providing a regular opportunity for the members of a group to meet and engage in a common activity. Ideal type (German: Idealtypus), also known as pure type, is a typological term most closely associated with antipositivist sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920). For Weber, the conduct of social science depends upon the construction of hypothetical concepts in the abstract. The â€Å"ideal type† is therefore a subjective element in social theory and research; one of many subjective elements which necessarily distinguish sociology from natural science. An ideal type is formed from characteristics and elements of the given phenomena, but it is not meant to correspond to all of the characteristics of any one particular case. It is not meant to refer to perfect things, moral ideals nor to statistical averages but rather to stress certain elements common to most cases of the given phenomena. It is also important to pay attention that in using the word â€Å"ideal† Max Weber refers to the world of ideas (German: Gedankenbilder â€Å"thoughtful pictures†) and not to perfection; these â€Å"ideal types† are idea-constructs that help put the chaos of social reality in order. Weber himself wrote: â€Å"An ideal type is formed by the one-sided accentuation of one or more points of view and by the synthesis of a great many diffuse, discrete, more or less present and occasionally absent concrete individual phenomena, which are arranged according to those onesidedly emphasized viewpoints into a unified analytical construct†¦ † It is a useful tool for comparative sociology in analyzing social or economic phenomena, having advantages over a very general, abstract idea and a specific historical example. It can be used to analyze both a general, suprahistorical phenomenon (like capitalism) or historically unique occurrences (like Weber’s own Protestant Ethics analysis). Weber’s three kinds of ideal types are distinguished by their levels of abstraction. First are the ideal types rooted in historical particularities, such as the â€Å"western city,† â€Å"the Protestant Ethic,† or â€Å"modern capitalism,† which refer to phenomena that appear only in specific historical periods and in particular cultural areas. A second kind involves abstract elements of social reality–such concepts as â€Å"bureaucracy† or â€Å"feudalism†Ã¢â‚¬â€œthat may be found in a variety of historical and cultural contexts. Finally, there is a third kind of ideal type, which Raymond Aron calls â€Å"rationalizing reconstructions of a particular kind of behavior. † According to Weber, all propositions in economic theory, for example, fall into this category. They all refer to the ways in which men would behave were they actuated by purely economic motives, were they purely economic men. Verstehen (German pronunciation: [f te ]), in the context of German philosophy and social sciences in general, has been used since the late 19th century – in English as in German – with the particular sense of the â€Å"interpretive or participatory† examination of social phenomena. The term is closely associated with the work of the German sociologist, Max Weber, whose antipositivism es tablished an alternative to prior sociological positivism and economic determinism, rooted in the analysis of social action. In anthropology, Verstehen has come to mean a systematic interpretive process in which an outside observer of a culture attempts to relate to it and understand others. Verstehen is now seen as a concept and a method central to a rejection of positivistic social science (although Weber appeared to think that the two could be united). Verstehen refers to understanding the meaning of action from the actor’s point of view. It is entering into the shoes of the other, and adopting this research stance requires treating the actor as a subject, rather than an object of your observations. It also implies that unlike objects in the natural world human actors are not simply the product of the pulls and pushes of external forces. Individuals are seen to create the world by organizing their own understanding of it and giving it meaning. To do research on actors without taking into account the meanings they attribute to their actions or environment is to treat them like objects. Interpretative Sociology (verstehende Soziologie) is the study of society that concentrates on the meanings people associate to their social world. Interpretative society strives to show that reality is constructed by people themselves in their daily lives. There is also a tendency in modern English not to follow the German-language practice of capitalizing nouns. Verstehen roughly translates to â€Å"meaningful understanding† or putting yourself in the shoes of others to see things from their perspective. Interpretive sociology differs from scientific (or positivist) sociology in three ways: Interpretive sociology deals with the meaning attached to behavior, unlike scientific sociology which focuses on action. Interpretive sociology sees reality as being constructed by people, unlike scientific sociology which sees an objective reality â€Å"out there†. Interpretive sociology relies on qualitative data, unlike scientific sociology which tends to make use of quantitative data. Functional Integration This refers to the interdependence among parts of a social system. Just as the human body is made up of interrelated parts each of which plays a role in maintaining the whole, so social systems are composed of interconnected parts that both support and depend on one another. Each part has contributions to make if the sum is to work well. These contributions are its functions – that is, functions are the effects that some social groups, event, or institution has within a system of relationships to other phenomena. Functionally integrated systems can also produce dysfunctions, or side-effects that are not good for the system. Pollution is a dysfunctional consequence of our industrial system. Social Systems can also disintegrate. Like the old Soviet Union. Functional integration refers to the integration of values with systems of action and it therefore involves priorities and allocations of diverse value component among proper occasion and relationshipsAs an institution changes, the others react to that change and compensate for it, thereby changing themselves in the process. But all the parts remain integrated into the single unit. Rational choice theory argues that social systems are organized in ways that structure the alternatives and consequences facing individuals so that they behave rationally. This allows them to best serve their self-interest within the constraints and resources that go with social systems and their status in them. Rational choice theory is the view that people behave as they do because they believe that performing their chosen actions has more benefits than costs. That is, people make rational choices based on their goals, and those choices govern their behavior. Some sociologists use rational choice theory to explain social change. According to them, social change occurs because individuals have made rational choices. For example, suppose many people begin to conserve more energy, lowering thermostats and driving less. An explanation for this social change is that individual people have decided that conserving energy will help them achieve their goals (for example, save money and live more healthfully) and cause little inconvenience. Critics argue people do not always act on the basis of cost-benefit analyses. Culture This is the language, norms, values, beliefs, knowledge, and symbols that make up a way of life. It is the understanding of how to act that people share with one another in any stable, self-reproducing group. Participation in a culture makes possible a meaningful understanding of one’s own actions and those of others. Without culture it would be hard to communicate. When one culture is particularly distinct and set apart from the rest it is called a subculture. Individuals may participate in more than one subculture. No one is ever cultureless, however, for sharing in some culture or combination of cultures is an essential part of what we think of as humans. Norms are the agreed-upon expectations and rules by which a culture guides the behavior of its members in any given situation. Of course, norms vary widely across cultural groups. Folkways, sometimes known as â€Å"conventions† or â€Å"customs,† are standards of behavior that are socially approved but not morally significant. Mores are norms of morality. Breaking mores will offend most people of a culture. Finally, laws are a formal body of rules enacted by the state and backed by the power of the state. Social norms  are group-held beliefs about how members should behave in a given context. Sociologists  describe norms as laws that govern society’s behaviors. Folkways are often referred to as â€Å"customs. † They are standards of behavior that are socially approved but not morally significant. They are norms for everyday behavior that people follow for the sake of tradition or convenience. Breaking a folkway does not usually have serious consequences. Mores are strict norms that control moral and ethical behavior. Mores are norms based on definitions of right and wrong. Unlike folkways, mores are morally significant. People feel strongly about them and violating them typically results in disapproval. A law is a norm that is written down and enforced by an official law enforcement agency. A culture’s values are its ideas about what is good, right, fair, and just. Sociologists disagree, however, on how to conceptualize values. Conflict theory focuses on how values differ between groups within a culture, while functionalism focuses on the shared values within a culture. For example, American sociologist Robert K. Merton suggested that the most important values in American society are wealth, success, power, and prestige, but that everyone does not have an equal opportunity to attain these values. Functional sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that Americans share the common value of the â€Å"American work ethic,† which encourages hard work. Other sociologists have proposed a common core of American values, including accomplishment, material success, problem-solving, reliance on science and technology, democracy, patriotism, charity, freedom, equality and justice, individualism, responsibility, and accountability. A culture, though, may harbor conflicting values. For instance, the value of material success may conflict with the value of charity. Or the value of equality may conflict with the value of individualism. Such contradictions may exist due to an inconsistency between people’s actions and their professed values, which explains why sociologists must carefully distinguish between what people do and what they say. Joan Jacobs Brumberg is a social historian and academic. She lectures and writes about the experiences of adolescents through history until the present day. In the subject area of Gender Studies, she has written about boys and violence, and girls and body image. Brumberg says that adolescence and childhood have been made more difficult for women due to the much earlier age of menarche than in the past. The average age at menstruation has dropped from 16 in 1890, to 12 while psychological development, she believes, has not accelerated. Also, consumer culture has added to people’s insecurities about their bodies. It is now normal and fashionable for girls to dress in a sexualized way. Jean Kilbourne, Ed. D. (born January 4, 1943) is a feminist author, speaker, and filmmaker who is internationally recognized for her work on the image of women in advertising and her critical studies of alcohol and tobacco advertising. She is also credited with introducing the idea of educating about media literacy as a way to prevent problems she viewed as originating from mass media advertising campaigns. These include the concepts of the tyranny of the beauty ideal, the connection between the objectification of women and violence, the themes of liberation and weight control exploited in tobacco advertising aimed at women, the targeting of alcoholics by the alcohol industry, addiction as a love affair, and many others. Hyperreality is generally defined as a condition in which what is real and what is fiction are blended together so that there is no clear distinction between where one ends and the other begins. It is a postmodern philosophy that deals in part with semiotics, or the study of the signs that surround people in everyday life and what they actually mean. Hyperreality is a way of characterizing what our consciousness defines as â€Å"real† in a world where a multitude of media can radically shape and filter an original event or experience. Hyperreality is exploited in advertising for almost everything, using a pseudo-world to enable people to be the characters they wish to be. Advertising sells the public through strong, desirable images, and many consumers buy into the brand’s point of view and products. If the consumer wants to be seen as a sex icon, he or she should buy the most expensive jeans as worn or designed by his or her favorite celebrity. Although the clothing itself has limited actual value, they symbolize a state of being that some consumers want. Every time a person enters a large shopping area with a certain theme, he or she may be entering a hyperreal world. Theme parks such as Disneyworld or the casinos in Las Vegas are hyperrealities in which a person can get lost for as long as his or her money lasts. There is no reality in these places, only a construct that is designed to represent reality, allowing the person to exist temporarily in a world outside of what is real. Sociobiology is a field of scientific study which is based on the assumption that social behavior has resulted from evolution and attempts to explain and examine social behavior within that context. Often considered a branch of biology and sociology, it also draws from ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, population genetics, and other disciplines. Within the study of human societies, sociobiology is very closely allied to the fields of Darwinian anthropology, human behavioral ecology and evolutionary psychology. Sociobiology investigates social behaviors, such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and the hive society of social insects. It argues that just as selection pressure led to animals evolving useful ways of interacting with the natural environment, it led to the genetic evolution of advantageous social behavior. The Human Animal: A Personal View of the Human Species is a BBC nature documentary series written and presented by Desmond Morris. Morris describes it as â€Å"A study of human behavior from a zoological perspective. † He travels the world, filming the diverse customs and habits of various regions while suggesting common roots. Stephanie Coontz studies the history of American families, marriage, and changes in gender roles. Her book The Way We Never Were argues against several common myths about families of the past, including the idea that the 1950s family was traditional or the notion that families used to rely solely on their own resources. Granville Stanley Hall was a pioneering American psychologist and educator. His interests focused on childhood development and evolutionary theory. Hall’s major books were Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime and Religion (1904) and Aspects of Child Life and Education (1921). His book Adolescence, was based on the results of the Child Study Movement. Hall described his system of psychology, which he called â€Å"genetic psychology. † His ideas were influenced by Charles Darwin. In the book, Hall described the evolutionary benefits of development from the womb to adolescence. The book itself is divided into six sections: biological and anthropological standpoint, medical standpoint, health and its tests, nubility of educated women, fecundity of educated women and education. Hall hoped that this book would become a guide for teachers and social workers in the education system. He was instrumental in the development of educational psychology, and attempted to determine the effect adolescence has on education. Hall believed that the pre-adolescent child develops to its best when it is not forced to follow constraints, but rather to go through the stages of evolution freely. He believed that before a child turned six or seven, the child should be able to experience how one lived in the simian stage. In this stage, the child would be able to express his animal spirits. The child is growing rapidly at this stage and the energy levels are high. The child is unable to use reasoning, show sensitiveness towards religion, or social discernment. By age eight, the child should be at stage two. This, Hall believed, is the stage where formal learning should begin. This is when the brain is at full size and weight. It is considered normal to be cruel and rude to others at this stage for the reasoning skills are still not developed. The child should not have to deal with moralizing conflicts or ideas, his is not yet ready at this stage. The child’s physical health is most important now. In the stage of the dolescent, the child now has a rebirth into a sexed life. Hall argued that at this point, there should no longer be coeducation. Both sexes can’t optimally learn and get everything out of the lessons in the presence the opposite sex. And, this is when true education can begin. The child is ready to deal with moral issues, kindness, love, and service for others. Reasoning powers are beginning, but are still not strong. Hall argued that the high school should be a place similar to a â€Å"people’s college† so that it could be more of an ending for those who would not be continuing their education to the next level. Coming of Age in Samoa is a book by American anthropologist Margaret Mead based upon her research and study of youth on the island of Ta’u in the Samoa Islands which primarily focused on adolescent girls. Mead was 23 years old when she carried out her field work in Samoa. First published in 1928, the book launched Mead as a pioneering researcher and the most famous anthropologist in the world. Since its first publication, Coming of Age in Samoa was the most widely read book in the field of anthropology, until Napoleon Chagnon’s â€Å"Yanomamo: The Fierce People† took the lead in sales. The book has sparked years of ongoing and intense debate and controversy on questions pertaining to society, culture and science. It is a key text in the nature vs. nurture debate as well as issues relating to family, adolescence, gender, social norms and attitudes. Courtesy, modesty, good manners, conformity to definite ethical standards are universal, but what constitutes courtesy, modesty, very good manners, and definite ethical standards is not universal. It is instructive to know that standards differ in the most unexpected ways. Mead’s findings suggested that the community ignores both boys and girls until they are about 15 or 16. Before then, children have no social standing within the community. Mead also found that marriage is regarded as a social and economic arrangement where wealth, rank, and job skills of the husband and wife are taken into consideration. Erik Erikson was a German-born American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. Erikson was a Neo-Freudian. He has been described as an â€Å"ego psychologist† studying the stages of development, spanning the entire ifespan. Each of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development is marked by a conflict for which successful resolution will result in a favourable outcome, and by an important event that this conflict resolves itself around. The Erikson life-stage virtues, in order of the eight stages in which they may be acquired, are: Basic trust vs. basic mistrus t – This stage covers the period of infancy. 0-1 year of age. – Whether or not the baby develops basic trust or basic mistrust is not merely a matter of nurture. It is multi-faceted and has strong social components. It depends on the quality of the maternal relationship. The mother carries out and reflects their inner perceptions of trustworthiness, a sense of personal meaning, etc. on the child. If successful in this, the baby develops a sense of trust, which â€Å"forms the basis in the child for a sense of identityâ€Å". Autonomy vs. Shame – Covers early childhood – Introduces the concept of autonomy vs. shame and doubt. During this stage the child is trying to master toilet training. Purpose – Initiative vs. Guilt – Preschool / 3–6 years – Does the child have the ability to or do things on their own, such as dress him or herself? If â€Å"guilty† about making his or her own choices, the child will not function well. Erikson has a positive outlook on this stage, saying that most guilt is quickly compensated by a sense of accomplishment. Competence – Industry vs. Inferiority – School-age / 6-11. Child comparing self-worth to others (such as in a classroom environment). Child can recognize major disparities in personal abilities relative to other children. Erikson places some emphasis on the teacher, who should ensure that children do not feel inferior. Fidelity – Identity vs. Role Confusion – Adolescent / 12 years till 20. Questioning of self. Who am I, how do I fit in? Where am I going in life? Erikson believes, that if the parents allow the child to explore, they will conclude their own identity. However, if the parents continually push him/her to conform to their views, the teen will face identity confusion. Intimacy vs. isolation – This is the first stage of adult development. This development usually happens during young adulthood, which is between the ages of 20 to 24. Dating, marriage, family and friendships are important during the stage in their life. By successfully forming loving relationships with other people, individuals are able to experience love and intimacy. Those who fail to form lasting relationships may feel isolated and alone. Generativity vs. stagnation is the second stage of adulthood and happens between the ages of 25-64. During this time people are normally settled in their life and know what is important to them. A person is either making progress in their career or treading lightly in their career and unsure if this is what they want to do for the rest of their working lives. Also during this time, a person is enjoying raising their children and participating in activities, that gives them a sense of purpose. If a person is not comfortable with the way their life is progressing, they’re usually regretful about the decisions and feel a sense of uselessness. Ego integrity vs. despair. This stage affects the age group of 65 and on. During this time you have reached the last chapter in your life and retirement is approaching or has already taken place. Many people, who have achieved what was important to them, look back on their lives and feel great accomplishment and a sense of integrity. Conversely, those who had a difficult time during middle adulthood may look back and feel a sense of despair. Thomas Hine- The Rise and Fall of the American Teenager. A history of the American adolescent experience, and why it must change. Persistence of vision is the phenomenon of the eye by which an afterimage is thought to persist for approximately one twenty-fifth of a second on the retina. The Kinetoscope is an early motion picture exhibition device. The Kinetoscope was designed for films to be viewed by one individual at a time through a peephole viewer window at the top of the device. The Kinetoscope was not a movie projector but introduced the basic approach that would become the standard for all cinematic projection before the advent of video, by creating the illusion of movement by conveying a strip of perforated film bearing sequential images over a light source with a high-speed shutter. The Lumieres held their first private screening of projected motion pictures in 1895. Their first public screening of films at which admission was charged was held on December 28, 1895, at Salon Indien du Grand Cafe in Paris. This history-making presentation featured ten short films, including their first film, Sortie des Usines Lumiere a Lyon (Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory). Each film is 17 meters long, which, when hand cranked through a projector, runs approximately 50 seconds. The Nickelodeon was the first type of indoor exhibition space dedicated to showing projected motion pictures. Usually set up in converted storefronts, these small, simple theaters charged five cents for admission and flourished from about 1905 to 1915. A movie palace is a erm used to refer to the large, elaborately decorated movie theaters built between the 1910s and the 1940s. The late 1920s saw the peak of the movie palace, with hundreds opened every year between 1925 and 1930. There are three building types in particular which can be subsumed under the label movie palace. First, the classical style movie palace, with its eclectic and luxurious period-revival architecture; second, the atmospheric theatre which has an audi torium ceiling that resembles an open sky as its defining feature and finally, the Art Deco theaters that became popular in the 1930s. How to cite Anomie: Sociology and People, Papers

Anomie Sociology and People Free Essays

Anomie describes a lack of social norms; â€Å"normlessness†. It describes the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and their community, if under unruly scenarios possibly resulting in fragmentation of social identity and rejection of self-regulatory values. It was popularized by French sociologist Emile Durkheim in his influential book Suicide (1897). We will write a custom essay sample on Anomie: Sociology and People or any similar topic only for you Order Now Durkheim borrowed the word from French philosopher Jean-Marie Guyau. Durkheim never uses the term normlessness; rather, he describes anomie as â€Å"a rule that is a lack of rule†, â€Å"derangement†, and â€Å"an insatiable will†. For Durkheim, anomie arises more generally from a mismatch between personal or group standards and wider social standards, or from the lack of a social ethic, which produces moral deregulation and an absence of legitimate aspirations. This is a nurtured condition: Anomie in common parlance is thought to mean something like â€Å"at loose ends†. The Oxford English Dictionary lists a range of definitions, beginning with a disregard of divine law, through the 19th and 20th century sociological terms meaning an absence of accepted social standards or values. Most sociologists associate the term with Durkheim, who used the concept to speak of the ways in which an individual’s actions are matched, or integrated, with a system of social norms and practices †¦ Durkheim also formally posited anomie as a mismatch, not simply as the absence of norms. Thus, a society with too much rigidity and little individual discretion could also produce a kind of anomie, a mismatch between individual circumstances and larger social mores. Thus, fatalistic suicide arises when a person is too rule-governed, when there is †¦ no free horizon of expectation. Durkheim attempts to explain the function of the division of labor, and makes the observation that it creates social cohesion. The industrial revolution, of course, produced great tension and turmoil, and Durkheim recognized this. He resolved the contradiction by developing the notion of anomie. Anomie is usually translated as normlessness, but it best understood as insufficient normative reg ulation. During periods of rapid social change, individuals sometimes experience alienation from group goals and values. They lose sight of their shared interests based on mutual dependence. In this condition, they are less constrained by group norms. Normative values become generalized, rather than personally embraced. The Sociological Imagination (1959), which is considered Mills’ most influential book on the sociology profession, describes a mindset for studying sociology — the sociological imagination — that stresses being able to connect individual experiences and societal relationships. Mills asserts that a critical task for social scientists is to â€Å"translate private troubles into public issues,† which is something that it is very difficult for ordinary citizens to do. Sociologists, then, rightly connect their autobiographical, personal challenges to social institutions. Social scientists should then connect those institutions to social structure(s) and locate them within a historical narrative. The three components that form the sociological imagination are: History: how a society came to be and how it is changing and how history is being made in it Biography: the nature of â€Å"human nature† in a society; what kinds of people inhabit a particular society Social Structure: how the various institutional orders in a society operate, which ones are dominant, how they are held together, how they might be changing, etc. The Promise Of Sociology C. Wright Mills  · Men now days often feel that their lives are a series of traps. They feel in their worlds they can’t overcome their troubles. According to Mills this is correct.  · You cannot understand the life of an individual or the history of society without understanding both.  · People do not see how the changes in history affect them. The do not see how the ups and downs they experience in their lives are affected by their society.  · People do not see the connection that exists between the patterns in their lives and the course of history. People need a quality of mind to use information to develop reason to make connections between what is going on in the world and what is happening to themselves. He calls this the Sociological Imagination.  · Sociological Imagination allows us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society. That is both its task and its promise. This is the purpose of classical social analysts.  · The most important distinction is between the issues and the troubles. Issues- have to do with matters that transcend these local environments of the individual and the range of his inner life.  · Troubles- occur within the character of the individual and within his range of his immediate relations with others. It has to do with his self and with those areas of social life in which he is directly and personally aware.  · The sociological imagination is supposed to help man to understand that what is happening to themselves is a result of intersections of history and biography within their society. Class consciousness is a term used in social sciences and political theory, particularly Marxism, to refer to the beliefs that a person holds regarding one’s social class or economic rank in society, the structure of their class, and their class interests. Defining a person’s social class can be a determinant for his awareness of it. Marxists define classes on the basis of their relation to the means of production – especially on whether they own capital. Non-Marxist social scientists distinguish various social strata on the basis of income, occupation, or status. Early in the nineteenth century, the labels â€Å"working classes† and â€Å"middle classes† were already coming into common usage. â€Å"The old hereditary aristocracy, reinforced by the new gentry who owed their success to commerce, industry, and the professions, evolved into an â€Å"upper class†. Its consciousness was formed in part by public schools (in the British sense) and Universities. The upper class tenaciously maintained control over the political system, depriving not only the working classes but the middle classes of a voice in the political process. Solidarity is the integration, and degree and type of integration, shown by a society or group with people and their neighbors. It refers to the ties in a society that bind people to one another. The term is generally employed in sociology and the other social sciences. What forms the basis of solidarity varies between societies. In simple societies it may be mainly based around kinship and shared valu es. In more complex societies there are various theories as to what contributes to a sense of social solidarity. According to Emile Durkheim, the types of social solidarity correlate with types of society. Durkheim introduced the terms â€Å"mechanical† and â€Å"organic solidarity† as part of his theory of the development of societies in The Division of Labor in Society (1893). In a society exhibiting mechanical solidarity, its cohesion and integration comes from the homogeneity of individuals—people feel connected through similar work, educational and religious training, and lifestyle. Mechanical solidarity normally operates in â€Å"traditional† and small scale societies. In simpler societies (e. g. tribal), solidarity is usually based on kinship ties of familial networks. Organic solidarity comes from the interdependence that arises from specialization of work and the complementarities between people—a development which occurs in â€Å"modern† and â€Å"industrial† societies. Definition: it is social cohesion based upon the dependence individ uals have on each other in more advanced societies. Although individuals perform different tasks and often have different values and interest, the order and very solidarity of society depends on their reliance on each other to perform their specified tasks. Organic here is referring to the interdependence of the component parts. Thus, social solidarity is maintained in more complex societies through the interdependence of its component parts (e. g. , farmers produce the food to feed the factory workers who produce the tractors that allow the farmer to produce the food) mechanical and organic solidarity, in the theory of the French social scientist Emile Durkheim (1858–1917), the social cohesiveness of small, undifferentiated societies (mechanical) and of societies differentiated by a relatively complex division of labour (organic). Mechanical solidarity is the social integration of members of a society who have common values and beliefs. These common values and beliefs constitute a â€Å"collective conscience† that works internally in individual members to cause them to cooperate. Because, in Durkheim’s view, the forces causing members of society to cooperate were much like the internal energies causing the molecules to cohere in a solid, he drew upon the terminology of physical science in coining the term mechanical solidarity. In contrast to mechanical solidarity, organic solidarity is social integration that arises out of the need of individuals for one another’s services. In a society characterized by organic solidarity, there is relatively greater division of labour, with individuals functioning much like the interdependent but differentiated organs of a living body. Society relies less on imposing uniform rules on everyone and more on regulating the relations between different groups and persons, often through the greater use of contracts and laws. Durkheim dentified two major types of social integration, mechanical and organic. The former refers to integration that is based on shared beliefs and sentiments, while the latter refers to integration that results from specialization and interdependence. These types reflect different ways that societies organized themselves. Where there is little differentiation in the kinds of labor that individuals engage in, integration based on common beliefs is to be found; in societies where work is highly differentiated, solidarity is the consequence of mutual dependence. The distinction reveals Durkheim’s thinking about how modern societies differ from earlier ones, and consequently, how solidarity changes as a society becomes more complex. Societies of mechanical solidarity tend to be relatively small and organized around kinship affiliations. Social relations are regulated by the shared system of beliefs, what Durkheim called the common conscience. Violations of social norms were taken as a direct threat to the shared identity, and so, reactions to deviance tended to emphasize punishment. As a society becomes larger, division of labor increases. A complex organization of labor is necessary, in larger societies, for the production of material life (as Marx suggested). Because people begin to specialize, the basis for the collective conscience is diminished. Solidarity based on the common belief system is no longer possible. Complexity does not lead to disintegration, Durkheim argued, but rather, to social solidarity based on interdependence. Since people are no longer producing all the things that they need, they must interact. Integration results from a recognition that each needs the other. Societies of organic solidarity are arranged around economic and political organizations. Their legal systems regulate behavior based on principles of exchange and restitution, rather than punishment. Manifest and latent functions are social scientific concepts of sociology by Robert K. Merton. Merton appeared interested in sharpening the conceptual tools to be employed in a functional analysis. Manifest functions and dysfunctions are conscious and deliberate, the latent ones the unconscious and unintended. While functions are intended (manifest) or unintended (latent), and have a positive effect on society, dysfunctions are unintended or unrecognized (latent) and have a negative effect on society. Manifest functions are the consequences that people observe or expect. It is explicitly stated and understood by the participants in the relevant action. The manifest function of a rain dance, used as an example by Merton in his 1967 Social Theory and Social Structure, is to produce rain, and this outcome is intended and desired by people participating in the ritual. Latent functions are those that are neither recognized nor intended. A latent function of a behavior is not explicitly stated, recognized, or intended by the people involved. Thus, they are identified observers. In the example of rain ceremony, the latent function reinforces the group identity by providing a regular opportunity for the members of a group to meet and engage in a common activity. Ideal type (German: Idealtypus), also known as pure type, is a typological term most closely associated with antipositivist sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920). For Weber, the conduct of social science depends upon the construction of hypothetical concepts in the abstract. The â€Å"ideal type† is therefore a subjective element in social theory and research; one of many subjective elements which necessarily distinguish sociology from natural science. An ideal type is formed from characteristics and elements of the given phenomena, but it is not meant to correspond to all of the characteristics of any one particular case. It is not meant to refer to perfect things, moral ideals nor to statistical averages but rather to stress certain elements common to most cases of the given phenomena. It is also important to pay attention that in using the word â€Å"ideal† Max Weber refers to the world of ideas (German: Gedankenbilder â€Å"thoughtful pictures†) and not to perfection; these â€Å"ideal types† are idea-constructs that help put the chaos of social reality in order. Weber himself wrote: â€Å"An ideal type is formed by the one-sided accentuation of one or more points of view and by the synthesis of a great many diffuse, discrete, more or less present and occasionally absent concrete individual phenomena, which are arranged according to those onesidedly emphasized viewpoints into a unified analytical construct†¦ † It is a useful tool for comparative sociology in analyzing social or economic phenomena, having advantages over a very general, abstract idea and a specific historical example. It can be used to analyze both a general, suprahistorical phenomenon (like capitalism) or historically unique occurrences (like Weber’s own Protestant Ethics analysis). Weber’s three kinds of ideal types are distinguished by their levels of abstraction. First are the ideal types rooted in historical particularities, such as the â€Å"western city,† â€Å"the Protestant Ethic,† or â€Å"modern capitalism,† which refer to phenomena that appear only in specific historical periods and in particular cultural areas. A second kind involves abstract elements of social reality–such concepts as â€Å"bureaucracy† or â€Å"feudalism†Ã¢â‚¬â€œthat may be found in a variety of historical and cultural contexts. Finally, there is a third kind of ideal type, which Raymond Aron calls â€Å"rationalizing reconstructions of a particular kind of behavior. † According to Weber, all propositions in economic theory, for example, fall into this category. They all refer to the ways in which men would behave were they actuated by purely economic motives, were they purely economic men. Verstehen (German pronunciation: [f te ]), in the context of German philosophy and social sciences in general, has been used since the late 19th century – in English as in German – with the particular sense of the â€Å"interpretive or participatory† examination of social phenomena. The term is closely associated with the work of the German sociologist, Max Weber, whose antipositivism es tablished an alternative to prior sociological positivism and economic determinism, rooted in the analysis of social action. In anthropology, Verstehen has come to mean a systematic interpretive process in which an outside observer of a culture attempts to relate to it and understand others. Verstehen is now seen as a concept and a method central to a rejection of positivistic social science (although Weber appeared to think that the two could be united). Verstehen refers to understanding the meaning of action from the actor’s point of view. It is entering into the shoes of the other, and adopting this research stance requires treating the actor as a subject, rather than an object of your observations. It also implies that unlike objects in the natural world human actors are not simply the product of the pulls and pushes of external forces. Individuals are seen to create the world by organizing their own understanding of it and giving it meaning. To do research on actors without taking into account the meanings they attribute to their actions or environment is to treat them like objects. Interpretative Sociology (verstehende Soziologie) is the study of society that concentrates on the meanings people associate to their social world. Interpretative society strives to show that reality is constructed by people themselves in their daily lives. There is also a tendency in modern English not to follow the German-language practice of capitalizing nouns. Verstehen roughly translates to â€Å"meaningful understanding† or putting yourself in the shoes of others to see things from their perspective. Interpretive sociology differs from scientific (or positivist) sociology in three ways: Interpretive sociology deals with the meaning attached to behavior, unlike scientific sociology which focuses on action. Interpretive sociology sees reality as being constructed by people, unlike scientific sociology which sees an objective reality â€Å"out there†. Interpretive sociology relies on qualitative data, unlike scientific sociology which tends to make use of quantitative data. Functional Integration This refers to the interdependence among parts of a social system. Just as the human body is made up of interrelated parts each of which plays a role in maintaining the whole, so social systems are composed of interconnected parts that both support and depend on one another. Each part has contributions to make if the sum is to work well. These contributions are its functions – that is, functions are the effects that some social groups, event, or institution has within a system of relationships to other phenomena. Functionally integrated systems can also produce dysfunctions, or side-effects that are not good for the system. Pollution is a dysfunctional consequence of our industrial system. Social Systems can also disintegrate. Like the old Soviet Union. Functional integration refers to the integration of values with systems of action and it therefore involves priorities and allocations of diverse value component among proper occasion and relationshipsAs an institution changes, the others react to that change and compensate for it, thereby changing themselves in the process. But all the parts remain integrated into the single unit. Rational choice theory argues that social systems are organized in ways that structure the alternatives and consequences facing individuals so that they behave rationally. This allows them to best serve their self-interest within the constraints and resources that go with social systems and their status in them. Rational choice theory is the view that people behave as they do because they believe that performing their chosen actions has more benefits than costs. That is, people make rational choices based on their goals, and those choices govern their behavior. Some sociologists use rational choice theory to explain social change. According to them, social change occurs because individuals have made rational choices. For example, suppose many people begin to conserve more energy, lowering thermostats and driving less. An explanation for this social change is that individual people have decided that conserving energy will help them achieve their goals (for example, save money and live more healthfully) and cause little inconvenience. Critics argue people do not always act on the basis of cost-benefit analyses. Culture This is the language, norms, values, beliefs, knowledge, and symbols that make up a way of life. It is the understanding of how to act that people share with one another in any stable, self-reproducing group. Participation in a culture makes possible a meaningful understanding of one’s own actions and those of others. Without culture it would be hard to communicate. When one culture is particularly distinct and set apart from the rest it is called a subculture. Individuals may participate in more than one subculture. No one is ever cultureless, however, for sharing in some culture or combination of cultures is an essential part of what we think of as humans. Norms are the agreed-upon expectations and rules by which a culture guides the behavior of its members in any given situation. Of course, norms vary widely across cultural groups. Folkways, sometimes known as â€Å"conventions† or â€Å"customs,† are standards of behavior that are socially approved but not morally significant. Mores are norms of morality. Breaking mores will offend most people of a culture. Finally, laws are a formal body of rules enacted by the state and backed by the power of the state. Social norms  are group-held beliefs about how members should behave in a given context. Sociologists  describe norms as laws that govern society’s behaviors. Folkways are often referred to as â€Å"customs. † They are standards of behavior that are socially approved but not morally significant. They are norms for everyday behavior that people follow for the sake of tradition or convenience. Breaking a folkway does not usually have serious consequences. Mores are strict norms that control moral and ethical behavior. Mores are norms based on definitions of right and wrong. Unlike folkways, mores are morally significant. People feel strongly about them and violating them typically results in disapproval. A law is a norm that is written down and enforced by an official law enforcement agency. A culture’s values are its ideas about what is good, right, fair, and just. Sociologists disagree, however, on how to conceptualize values. Conflict theory focuses on how values differ between groups within a culture, while functionalism focuses on the shared values within a culture. For example, American sociologist Robert K. Merton suggested that the most important values in American society are wealth, success, power, and prestige, but that everyone does not have an equal opportunity to attain these values. Functional sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that Americans share the common value of the â€Å"American work ethic,† which encourages hard work. Other sociologists have proposed a common core of American values, including accomplishment, material success, problem-solving, reliance on science and technology, democracy, patriotism, charity, freedom, equality and justice, individualism, responsibility, and accountability. A culture, though, may harbor conflicting values. For instance, the value of material success may conflict with the value of charity. Or the value of equality may conflict with the value of individualism. Such contradictions may exist due to an inconsistency between people’s actions and their professed values, which explains why sociologists must carefully distinguish between what people do and what they say. Joan Jacobs Brumberg is a social historian and academic. She lectures and writes about the experiences of adolescents through history until the present day. In the subject area of Gender Studies, she has written about boys and violence, and girls and body image. Brumberg says that adolescence and childhood have been made more difficult for women due to the much earlier age of menarche than in the past. The average age at menstruation has dropped from 16 in 1890, to 12 while psychological development, she believes, has not accelerated. Also, consumer culture has added to people’s insecurities about their bodies. It is now normal and fashionable for girls to dress in a sexualized way. Jean Kilbourne, Ed. D. (born January 4, 1943) is a feminist author, speaker, and filmmaker who is internationally recognized for her work on the image of women in advertising and her critical studies of alcohol and tobacco advertising. She is also credited with introducing the idea of educating about media literacy as a way to prevent problems she viewed as originating from mass media advertising campaigns. These include the concepts of the tyranny of the beauty ideal, the connection between the objectification of women and violence, the themes of liberation and weight control exploited in tobacco advertising aimed at women, the targeting of alcoholics by the alcohol industry, addiction as a love affair, and many others. Hyperreality is generally defined as a condition in which what is real and what is fiction are blended together so that there is no clear distinction between where one ends and the other begins. It is a postmodern philosophy that deals in part with semiotics, or the study of the signs that surround people in everyday life and what they actually mean. Hyperreality is a way of characterizing what our consciousness defines as â€Å"real† in a world where a multitude of media can radically shape and filter an original event or experience. Hyperreality is exploited in advertising for almost everything, using a pseudo-world to enable people to be the characters they wish to be. Advertising sells the public through strong, desirable images, and many consumers buy into the brand’s point of view and products. If the consumer wants to be seen as a sex icon, he or she should buy the most expensive jeans as worn or designed by his or her favorite celebrity. Although the clothing itself has limited actual value, they symbolize a state of being that some consumers want. Every time a person enters a large shopping area with a certain theme, he or she may be entering a hyperreal world. Theme parks such as Disneyworld or the casinos in Las Vegas are hyperrealities in which a person can get lost for as long as his or her money lasts. There is no reality in these places, only a construct that is designed to represent reality, allowing the person to exist temporarily in a world outside of what is real. Sociobiology is a field of scientific study which is based on the assumption that social behavior has resulted from evolution and attempts to explain and examine social behavior within that context. Often considered a branch of biology and sociology, it also draws from ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, population genetics, and other disciplines. Within the study of human societies, sociobiology is very closely allied to the fields of Darwinian anthropology, human behavioral ecology and evolutionary psychology. Sociobiology investigates social behaviors, such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and the hive society of social insects. It argues that just as selection pressure led to animals evolving useful ways of interacting with the natural environment, it led to the genetic evolution of advantageous social behavior. The Human Animal: A Personal View of the Human Species is a BBC nature documentary series written and presented by Desmond Morris. Morris describes it as â€Å"A study of human behavior from a zoological perspective. † He travels the world, filming the diverse customs and habits of various regions while suggesting common roots. Stephanie Coontz studies the history of American families, marriage, and changes in gender roles. Her book The Way We Never Were argues against several common myths about families of the past, including the idea that the 1950s family was traditional or the notion that families used to rely solely on their own resources. Granville Stanley Hall was a pioneering American psychologist and educator. His interests focused on childhood development and evolutionary theory. Hall’s major books were Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime and Religion (1904) and Aspects of Child Life and Education (1921). His book Adolescence, was based on the results of the Child Study Movement. Hall described his system of psychology, which he called â€Å"genetic psychology. † His ideas were influenced by Charles Darwin. In the book, Hall described the evolutionary benefits of development from the womb to adolescence. The book itself is divided into six sections: biological and anthropological standpoint, medical standpoint, health and its tests, nubility of educated women, fecundity of educated women and education. Hall hoped that this book would become a guide for teachers and social workers in the education system. He was instrumental in the development of educational psychology, and attempted to determine the effect adolescence has on education. Hall believed that the pre-adolescent child develops to its best when it is not forced to follow constraints, but rather to go through the stages of evolution freely. He believed that before a child turned six or seven, the child should be able to experience how one lived in the simian stage. In this stage, the child would be able to express his animal spirits. The child is growing rapidly at this stage and the energy levels are high. The child is unable to use reasoning, show sensitiveness towards religion, or social discernment. By age eight, the child should be at stage two. This, Hall believed, is the stage where formal learning should begin. This is when the brain is at full size and weight. It is considered normal to be cruel and rude to others at this stage for the reasoning skills are still not developed. The child should not have to deal with moralizing conflicts or ideas, his is not yet ready at this stage. The child’s physical health is most important now. In the stage of the dolescent, the child now has a rebirth into a sexed life. Hall argued that at this point, there should no longer be coeducation. Both sexes can’t optimally learn and get everything out of the lessons in the presence the opposite sex. And, this is when true education can begin. The child is ready to deal with moral issues, kindness, love, and service for others. Reasoning powers are beginning, but are still not strong. Hall argued that the high school should be a place similar to a â€Å"people’s college† so that it could be more of an ending for those who would not be continuing their education to the next level. Coming of Age in Samoa is a book by American anthropologist Margaret Mead based upon her research and study of youth on the island of Ta’u in the Samoa Islands which primarily focused on adolescent girls. Mead was 23 years old when she carried out her field work in Samoa. First published in 1928, the book launched Mead as a pioneering researcher and the most famous anthropologist in the world. Since its first publication, Coming of Age in Samoa was the most widely read book in the field of anthropology, until Napoleon Chagnon’s â€Å"Yanomamo: The Fierce People† took the lead in sales. The book has sparked years of ongoing and intense debate and controversy on questions pertaining to society, culture and science. It is a key text in the nature vs. nurture debate as well as issues relating to family, adolescence, gender, social norms and attitudes. Courtesy, modesty, good manners, conformity to definite ethical standards are universal, but what constitutes courtesy, modesty, very good manners, and definite ethical standards is not universal. It is instructive to know that standards differ in the most unexpected ways. Mead’s findings suggested that the community ignores both boys and girls until they are about 15 or 16. Before then, children have no social standing within the community. Mead also found that marriage is regarded as a social and economic arrangement where wealth, rank, and job skills of the husband and wife are taken into consideration. Erik Erikson was a German-born American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. Erikson was a Neo-Freudian. He has been described as an â€Å"ego psychologist† studying the stages of development, spanning the entire ifespan. Each of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development is marked by a conflict for which successful resolution will result in a favourable outcome, and by an important event that this conflict resolves itself around. The Erikson life-stage virtues, in order of the eight stages in which they may be acquired, are: Basic trust vs. basic mistrus t – This stage covers the period of infancy. 0-1 year of age. – Whether or not the baby develops basic trust or basic mistrust is not merely a matter of nurture. It is multi-faceted and has strong social components. It depends on the quality of the maternal relationship. The mother carries out and reflects their inner perceptions of trustworthiness, a sense of personal meaning, etc. on the child. If successful in this, the baby develops a sense of trust, which â€Å"forms the basis in the child for a sense of identityâ€Å". Autonomy vs. Shame – Covers early childhood – Introduces the concept of autonomy vs. shame and doubt. During this stage the child is trying to master toilet training. Purpose – Initiative vs. Guilt – Preschool / 3–6 years – Does the child have the ability to or do things on their own, such as dress him or herself? If â€Å"guilty† about making his or her own choices, the child will not function well. Erikson has a positive outlook on this stage, saying that most guilt is quickly compensated by a sense of accomplishment. Competence – Industry vs. Inferiority – School-age / 6-11. Child comparing self-worth to others (such as in a classroom environment). Child can recognize major disparities in personal abilities relative to other children. Erikson places some emphasis on the teacher, who should ensure that children do not feel inferior. Fidelity – Identity vs. Role Confusion – Adolescent / 12 years till 20. Questioning of self. Who am I, how do I fit in? Where am I going in life? Erikson believes, that if the parents allow the child to explore, they will conclude their own identity. However, if the parents continually push him/her to conform to their views, the teen will face identity confusion. Intimacy vs. isolation – This is the first stage of adult development. This development usually happens during young adulthood, which is between the ages of 20 to 24. Dating, marriage, family and friendships are important during the stage in their life. By successfully forming loving relationships with other people, individuals are able to experience love and intimacy. Those who fail to form lasting relationships may feel isolated and alone. Generativity vs. stagnation is the second stage of adulthood and happens between the ages of 25-64. During this time people are normally settled in their life and know what is important to them. A person is either making progress in their career or treading lightly in their career and unsure if this is what they want to do for the rest of their working lives. Also during this time, a person is enjoying raising their children and participating in activities, that gives them a sense of purpose. If a person is not comfortable with the way their life is progressing, they’re usually regretful about the decisions and feel a sense of uselessness. Ego integrity vs. despair. This stage affects the age group of 65 and on. During this time you have reached the last chapter in your life and retirement is approaching or has already taken place. Many people, who have achieved what was important to them, look back on their lives and feel great accomplishment and a sense of integrity. Conversely, those who had a difficult time during middle adulthood may look back and feel a sense of despair. Thomas Hine- The Rise and Fall of the American Teenager. A history of the American adolescent experience, and why it must change. Persistence of vision is the phenomenon of the eye by which an afterimage is thought to persist for approximately one twenty-fifth of a second on the retina. The Kinetoscope is an early motion picture exhibition device. The Kinetoscope was designed for films to be viewed by one individual at a time through a peephole viewer window at the top of the device. The Kinetoscope was not a movie projector but introduced the basic approach that would become the standard for all cinematic projection before the advent of video, by creating the illusion of movement by conveying a strip of perforated film bearing sequential images over a light source with a high-speed shutter. The Lumieres held their first private screening of projected motion pictures in 1895. Their first public screening of films at which admission was charged was held on December 28, 1895, at Salon Indien du Grand Cafe in Paris. This history-making presentation featured ten short films, including their first film, Sortie des Usines Lumiere a Lyon (Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory). Each film is 17 meters long, which, when hand cranked through a projector, runs approximately 50 seconds. The Nickelodeon was the first type of indoor exhibition space dedicated to showing projected motion pictures. Usually set up in converted storefronts, these small, simple theaters charged five cents for admission and flourished from about 1905 to 1915. A movie palace is a erm used to refer to the large, elaborately decorated movie theaters built between the 1910s and the 1940s. The late 1920s saw the peak of the movie palace, with hundreds opened every year between 1925 and 1930. There are three building types in particular which can be subsumed under the label movie palace. First, the classical style movie palace, with its eclectic and luxurious period-revival architecture; second, the atmospheric theatre which has an audi torium ceiling that resembles an open sky as its defining feature and finally, the Art Deco theaters that became popular in the 1930s. How to cite Anomie: Sociology and People, Papers

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Question: Discuss About The Business Global Level Chosen Destinations? Answer: Introduction Woolworths limited company has been selected for the report.The report consists of the global scan and audit analysis and this required to be done for expanding the business entity to a global level in the chosen destinations that are China and India. Woolworths Limited is the biggest retailing Australian company. It is the second leading company in Australia by revenue. It was the ninth biggest retailer across the world in 2008. It operates its business in Australia and New Zealand. The company was founded in 1924 and its headquarter is located in Bella Vista, New South Wales Australia. The profit of the company is approx $-1.2 billion(2016) and revenue of the company is approx $59 billion(2016). There are approx 202,000 employees working in the company. It is the second largest company in New Zealand. Audit analysis and Global scan Woolworths is planning to expand its business operations and activities to global of China and India. Therefore, the marketing team, sales executive, and management are planning to evaluate and measures the opportunities and risk in the selected countries. The opportunities and risk in China and India are discussed below (Bayne, Schepis Purchase, 2017). Chinese market After the various researches, it has been analyzed that China is the biggest country in the world. It is one of the biggest countries with a highest population and economy. It is using effective policies, rules, strategies and norms for effective business operation. The country is using effective technology and resources to gain the competitive advantages. It has been analyzed that China is first largest country in terms of population and it is the highest populated country in the world (Lee et al, 2015). The country uses effective human resources and capital for the successful and growing economy. It is the biggest producer of the various brands and it maintains the low labor cost. The current GDP of the company is approx $11.8 trillion and the growth rate is approx 6.7%. The country is the world leader in technical innovation in textile manufacturing, producing of steel, aluminum and agricultural revolution. China is using the different modern technique for business. Now it has bee n noted that Woolworths limited company can expand its business easily through its effective policies and technology. It has been analyzed that high population is the major factor for the company to expand its business in such country. The high population will help to increase in demand for the products. Due to the low labor cost, the company will manage the workforce for the channels at very low cost. Efficiency and effectiveness will also help to expand the business operation of the company. The company can utilize the available resources in very effective way. It is the other benefit for the company (Lynch, 2014). Indian market The company can also expand its business activities and operation in Indian destination. Thus, the company needs to analyze and measure the risk and opportunities of the Indian market. The business of the company depends upon the risk and opportunities of the country (Gunjal, 2017). Thus, before starting the business operation in the foreign country, the marketing team and management of the business entity should analyze and identify the risk and opportunities available in the foreign market (Guha et al, 2014). The business entity also evaluates the environment of the country. Environmental factors affect the business operation of the company and these factors play a significant role in growth and success of the company. It has been noted that Woolworths has a great scope and opportunities to establish its supermarket in the Indian market. It has been noted that India is the second largest country in terms of high population. It will also help to enhance and expand the business of th e organization. The GDP and income level of the country are favorable in India. Thus, the current GDP of the country is approx $2.454trillion which has been increased by 7.2% as compared to the last year (Gereffi Luo, 2015). After the various researches, it has been analyzed that agriculture is the primary sector of the country which generates higher revenue for the Indian economy. Industrialization and modernization also influence the business of the company (Jie, Parton Chan, 2015). Globalization also a significant factor to show the foreign countries interest in investment in such country. It will help to increase the GDP of the country (Grant Jordan, 2015). The policies, strategies, and norms which are implemented by the government will also provide the financial support to Woolworths to expand its business. Further, the service sector is also considered the biggest sector to achieve the goals and objectives of the company. Now it has been observed that if Woolworths Company establishes its supermarket in Indian economy then it will not face any kind of issues and challenges in such country (Boutabba, 2014). Culture and market of China and India After the various researches, it has been noted that business factors play a significant role in the growth and success of the business entity in Chinese as well as Indian markets. The various cultural factors influence the business environment and performance of the company. Along with this, if the company operates its business in other destinations then various challenges are also faced by the company (Frynas Mellahi, 2015). The cross cultural factors influence the business operation of the organization adversely because the team members of the company are not able to able to understand the culture of the India and China. On the other hand, social factors also affect the purchasing power of the people. Hence, it affects the trade activities of the company negatively. In India, there is a tendency to buy the products from local shops at the low prices (De Mooij, 2013). There are many cultural factors exist in the China and Indian market which are discussed below. Distribution of information and knowledge: Distribution of income also plays a significant role to develop and expand the business in the foreign An expansion in the transparency level is required to be created by Woolworths Ltd between its benefits and the cost of merchandise sold. Situating of the brands is very troublesome in the event of Indian markets and furthermore constructing trust and picking up a piece of the pie. For example, Uber is a multinational company which offers private taxi benefit and it is established in the United States of America (Fang, 2014). The business entity moved towards the Indian market and for influencing the customers they introduced attractive. This helped them in picking up trust and acquired an expansion the goodwill and piece of the pie. Apart from the previously mentioned factors, there are some market section modes which are available in the worldwide market condition. These market passage choices can be used by the business substance for entering in the host economy for extending the business. While choosing the market passage modes, the business company should contemplate a portion of the satisfactory standards and controls (Das Nair Dube, 2017). Attitudes, values, and styles of people: The attitudes, values, and styles of the people influence the business operation and activities of the organization. Bargaining power of people also affect the supermarkets of Woolworths limited company. If the company wants to start operation in India and China then the company will have to start and develop some offers and discount schemes to gain success in the Indian market. This issue does not exist in Chinese market therefore, it builds and increases the foreign direct investment rate in the Chinese market (Cappelli, Singh, Singh Useem, 2015). Woolworth Limiteds Strategic capabilities The business entity has successfully attained and builds the image Australia. Moreover, the business corporation is also planning to expand the business operations in the international markets (Kleinmanand Lin, 2013). The chosen destinations for the expansion plans are India and China and these markets are chosen as they are the two economies who have the highest population density. A highly crowded economy can be considered as one of the factors which can be proven beneficial for the business as it leads to an increase in demand. The below presented are the factors which dictate the strategic capabilities of Woolworths Ltd: Financial Position: On the basis of the recent survey it has been observed that the past years or from the period of the establishment of the entity, an approx. count of more than 1000 stores has been launched in the region. This presents a high level of success attained by the business organization (Lee et al., 2015). Moreover, the establishment of new outlets will require the business entity to make huge investments. And this also shows that the business entity is financially stable. On the basis of the conducted survey, it has been noted that Woolworths Limited has attained a growth rate of 7.96% in past five years which has been considered quite high as compared to its competitors. Brand Image: Developing a brand image is a crucial task for the business entity and which requires adaptation of appropriate strategies. The basic element in this concept is providing high-quality products, offering discounts and special schemes to the customers. Moreover, adoption of better and improved mechanisms of promotional and advertisement etc. can also be considered as relevant for establishing the brand image of the entity (De Mooij, 2013). According to the survey report of 2005, Woolworths Limited has been ranked on top in retail charts, for adapting the best innovation strategies. Afterwards, in the year 2012, it was listed at the peak position for as the sustainable retailer and recently it is ranked as the major online distributor of products and services in Australia. SWOT analysis The below presented is the SWOT analysis which has been executed over Woolworths Ltd. This has been done as the management of the business entity is planning to develop the establishment strategies for the new markets. Moreover, this analysis will also make the business corporation aware of the risks and the expenses which will be incurred by the business: Strength: the Brand image of the business corporation has been considered as one of the biggest strength of the organization (Mukherjee, Cuthbertsonand Howard, 2014). The brand equity of the Woolworths aids the business corporation in developing the trust of the consumers. Moreover, the firm also provides a quality of products, which makes the entity more strong in the market. Further, the business entity has been focusing on the strategies which are developed for maintaining strong relations with the customers. This is also considered as one of the strengths of the company, as it will bring a hike in the goodwill of the firm. Weakness: On the basis of the conducted survey report in 2012, it has observed that the business entity has been facing an increase in the debt ratio and for the last year the debt ratio was at peak as compared to the last five years and this has been considered as one of the weaknesses of the business Corporation (Grantand Jordan, 2015). Opportunities: As discussed in the above-analysed report the expansion of the business entity in the new markets and regions can be considered as one of the biggest opportunity of the business corporation. Apart from the physical expansions the business entity should plan and develop the brand name in the online market. Threats: The low-pricing policy adopted for aiding the consumers can be proven one of the threats for the business corporation. Also, intensification in the competitive environment is one of the biggest threats for Woolworths Ltd (Kleinman Lin, 2013). Risks involved in the Chinese and Indian markets The below discussed are the risks which can be observed and experienced by Woolworths Ltd in the new markets, where the company has been planning for the expansion: Legal system: As the business entity is operating in Australia, and the company is planning to expand the business in Indian and Chinese markets, the business entity will be facing differences in the rules and regulations followed and adopted by the new markets and regions. There are huge foreign direct investments from across the globe, as China has an optimum number of foreign companies and they are already operating in the same region. Woolworths Limited is a supermarkets chain in Australia. For instance, the entity will face some issues in India while dealing in some products such as Alcohol as there are some regions in India where consumption and selling of alcoholic products are banned (Bailey, 2017). Tax System: There is a big difference between the tax policies and the norms imposed by Australian and Indian governing authorities (Muasa, 2014). Australian tax policies and the exemption of tax policies differ from the Indian as well as Chinese tax system. Also in case of India Sales Tax has replaced all other taxes and has made the tax system easier. These differences in the tax system will be developing a number of issues for the business entity. Recommendation The business entity has chosen India and China for expansion of the business operations and so they should concentrate their focus towards the consumers more both the regions have the best human resource and which will be proven beneficial for the business entity. Also, China will be proved a most beneficial option for the expansion purpose as the region has there is a number of multinational corporations operating in this region and also have a huge amount of foreign direct investments and which will be proven beneficial for Woolworths. Conclusion In the limelight of the above-executed analysis, it has been inferred that Woolworths Ltd is a multinational supermarket chain and is planning to expand the business operations in new markets. And for this, India and China are the new regions which have been chosen. The above-presented report has been focused on the global scan and audit analysis of the risks which will be faced by the business entity during the expansion. References Bailey, M., 2017. Absorptive Capacity, International Business Knowledge Transfer, and Local Adaptation: Establishing Discount Department Stores in Australia.Australian Economic History Review,57(2), pp.194-216. Bayne, L., Schepis, D. and Purchase, S., 2017, A framework for understanding strategic network performance: Exploring efficiency and effectiveness at the network level,Industrial Marketing Management. Boutabba, M.A., 2014, The impact of financial development, income, energy and trade on carbon emissions: evidence from the Indian economy,Economic Modelling,40, pp.33-41. Cappelli, P., Singh, H., Singh, J. and Useem, M., 2015, Indian business leadership: Broad mission and creative value,The Leadership Quarterly,26(1), pp.7-12. Das Nair, R. and Dube, S.C., 2017, Growth and Strategies of Large, Lead Firms-Supermarkets. De Mooij, M., 2013.Global marketing and advertising: Understanding cultural paradoxes. Sage Publications. Fang, T., 2014, Understanding Chinese culture and communication: the Yin Yang approach,Global leadership practices, pp.171-187. Frynas, J.G. and Mellahi, K., 2015,USA Oxford University Press, Global strategic management. Gereffi, G. and Luo, X., 2015, Risks and opportunities of participation in global value chains. Grant, R.M. and Jordan, J.J., 2015.Foundations of strategy.John Wiley Sons. Guha, N., Warnakulasuriya, S., Vlaanderen, J. and Straif, K., 2014, Betel quid chewing and the risk of oral and oropharyngeal cancers: A meta?analysis with implications for cancer control,International journal of cancer,135(6), pp.1433-1443. Gunjal, T.D., 2017, A Swot Analysis And Recent Fdi Controversy Of Retail Sector In India,International Research Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies,3(4). Jie, F., Parton, K. and Chan, C., 2015, Australian beef supply chain integration: case studies of the two largest Australian supermarkets,International Journal of Supply Chain and Operations Resilience,1(2), pp.121-138. Kleinman, A. and Lin, T.Y. eds., 2013,Springer Science Business Media, Normal and abnormal behavior in Chinese culture(Vol. 2). Lee, A., Yao, J., Mizerski, R. and Lambert, C., 2015.The strategy of global branding and brand equity.Routledge. Lynch, R. 2014, What is global strategy? And why it is important?, Assessed on 10th September 2017, https://www.global-strategy.net/what-is-global-strategy/. Muasa, S.M., 2014. Cost leadership strategy and sustainable competitive advantage of Naivas supermarket limited in Kenya.Unpublished MBA thesis university of Nairobi. Mukherjee, M., Cuthbertson, R. and Howard, E. eds., 2014.Retailing in emerging markets: a policy and strategy perspective. Routledge. Tradingeconomics, 2017, China GDP, Assessed on 10th September 2017, https://tradingeconomics.com/china/gdp. Tradingeconomics, 2017, Indian GDP, Assessed on 10th September 2017, https://tradingeconomics.com/india/gdp. Woolworthsgroup, 2017, Woolworths supermarkets, Assessed on 10th 2017, https://www.woolworthsgroup.com.au/page/about-us/our-brands/supermarkets/Woolworths

Digital Marketing and Local Government †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Digital Marketing and Local Government. Answer: Introduction: According to the article by Tiago and Verissimo (2014), communication is the key to organizational success. Effective communication lays the foundation of the organization thereby, having a competitive advantage. The article highlights that the traditional method of communication creating issues in establishing effective communication within the organization. As a result, both employee and organizational performance are severely hampered. Therefore, the use of digital communication needs to be implemented by the organizations in order to ensure effective communication. The types of digital communication include the use of social media, emails and group chats. Therefore, it can be concluded that the use of digital communication will help in ensuring effective communication within the organization thereby, enhancing the employee and organizational performance. According to the article by Lovejoy and Saxton (2012), communication through social media is different from communication through the official organizational website. Communication through organizational website narrows down the range of communication. According to the article, the use of social media includes internet relay chats, blogging, and instant messaging that broadens the range of organizational communication. Digital communication helps in opening greater possibilities for organizational and interpersonal communication. For example, the non-profit organizations use Facebook for building capital that is used for other benefits of the society. According to the article Leonardi, Huysman and Steinfield (2013), social media is used increasingly as the main of communication for the employees within the organization. This paper aim towards understanding the how the organizations use and conduct the communicative activities through social media in order complete the work successfully. Enterprise social media is considered as a platform rather than a channel that provides an opportunity for the employees to communicate with different employees within the organizations. Therefore, any employee can participate in the communication at any time regardless of the time and venue. According to the article by Treem and Leonardi (2013), the use of social as a communication tool is increasing incredibly. The managers of the organizations aim towards using digital communication in order to enhance the organizational communication process. This article argues that whether social media plays a significant role in communication. This is because the behaviors of the individuals associated with social media communication are unpredictable and unreliable. It has been seen that social media communication has failed to cover association, visibility, persistence, and affordance that has eventually hampered the overall communication process. Therefore, it can be concluded that the use of social media communication has both positive and negatives while being used for organizational communication. According to the article by Macnamara and Zerfass (2012), government departments, multinational companies, and small sized business organizations are increasingly using social media as the communication tool. The openness of Web 2.0 has brought a positive development for digital communication as this influences active participation of the employees, exchanging of dialogues, community building along with democratizing the voices. However, according to the article, some of the organization in Australasia and Europe has prohibited the use of social media for communication (Mercea, 2012). According to the article by Lapidoth (2017), digital communication helps in establishing effective communication between the employees of the same organization. Due to digital communication, the employees of different branches are able to maintain a healthy communication between them. This helps in gaining a competitive advantage for the organization as the employees are connected in spite of being present in different branches. Additionally, digital communication facilitates communication by leading to advanced information discovery and delivery. The article by Moorhead et al., (2013), highlights the lacks of information about the benefits and uses of social media communication in the healthcare system. Effective communication in the healthcare system is essential as this helps the healthcare professionals to be aware of the past and present conditions of the patients based on which the treatment is provided. Social media communication thus provides an opportunity for the patients and the healthcare professionals to communicate thereby, providing better service (Bennett Segerberg, 2012). entering the governmental departments in order to achieve enhanced public service and engagement. In today's world, the majority of the population are active social media users and can be reached easily through this platform. Therefore, the governmental departments are using social media to communicate with the population in order to know their issues or things that can be improved for the betterment of the country. Therefore, it can be concluded that the incorporation and implementation of social media communication by the government is beneficial in enhancing the public service. The article by Huang, Baptista and Galliers (2013), enlightens the impact of social media on the internal communication of the organizations. The majority of the employees uses social media that is considered as one of the best media for establishing effective organizational communication. The use of social media platform provides an opportunity for the employees to communicate with each other without any boundaries in terms of time or venue. Additionally, even the managers can implement a friendly approach for the employees thereby, facilitating the participation of all the individuals within an organization. The article by Lane, Armin and Gordon (2015), highlights the use of social media or digital communication for both internal and external recruitment. The business organizations posts desired vacancies in the social media that is accessible to both internal and external applicants. This saves the financial resources of the company in terms of advertising and publishing. Moreover, the organizations are also able to communicate with the applicants freely and judge their suitability. Therefore, it can be concluded that digital communication helps the business organizations to communicate with applicants for effective recruitment. References Bennett, W. L., Segerberg, A. (2012). The logic of connective action: Digital media and the personalization of contentious politics. Information, Communication Society, 15(5), 739-768. https://content.schweitzer-online.de/static/catalog_manager/live/media_files/representation/zd_std_orig__zd_schw_orig/004/878/529/9781107025745_foreword_pdf_1.pdf Huang, J., Baptista, J., Galliers, R. D. (2013). Reconceptualizing rhetorical practices in organizations: The impact of social media on internal communications. Information Management, 50(2), 112-124. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378720612000766 Lane, T. S., Armin, J., Gordon, J. S. (2015). Online recruitment methods for web-based and mobile health studies: a review of the literature. Journal of medical Internet research, 17(7). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4527014/ Lapidoth, A. (2017). A foundation in digital communication. Cambridge University Press. https://www.langtoninfo.com/web_content/9780521193955_frontmatter.pdf Leonardi, P. M., Huysman, M., Steinfield, C. (2013). Enterprise social media: Definition, history, and prospects for the study of social technologies in organizations. Journal of Computer?Mediated Communication, 19(1), 1-19. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d398/beced46641972dfceb26c81e3d9d411860a7.pdf Lovejoy, K., Saxton, G. D. (2012). Information, community, and action: How nonprofit organizations use social media. Journal of Computer?Mediated Communication, 17(3), 337-353. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0f0d/5ac33a7df55e7294207922b7b2e46090816e.pdf Macnamara, J., Zerfass, A. (2012). Social media communication in organizations: The challenges of balancing openness, strategy, and management. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 6(4), 287-308. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jim_Macnamara/publication/271997335_Social_Media_Communication_in_Organizations_The_Challenges_of_Balancing_Openness_Strategy_and_Management/links/55f0cf0608aedecb68ffc468/Social-Media-Communication-in-Organizations-The-Challenges-of-Balancing-Openness-Strategy-and-Management.pdf Mercea, D. (2012). Digital prefigurative participation: The entwinement of online communication and offline participation in protest events. New Media Society, 14(1), 153-169. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dan_Mercea/publication/258173711_Digital_prefigurative_participation_The_entwinement_of_online_communication_and_offline_participation_in_protest_events/links/56557cb708aefe619b1a6463.pdf Moorhead, S. A., Hazlett, D. E., Harrison, L., Carroll, J. K., Irwin, A., Hoving, C. (2013). A new dimension of health care: systematic review of the uses, benefits, and limitations of social media for health communication. Journal of medical Internet research, 15(4). https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ciska_Hoving/publication/236327697_A_New_Dimension_of_Health_Care_Systematic_Review_of_the_Uses_Benefits_and_Limitations_of_Social_Media_for_Health_Communication/links/0c960539872d9432de000000/A-New-Dimension-of-Health-Care-Systematic-Review-of-the-Uses-Benefits-and-Limitations-of-Social-Media-for-Health-Communication.pdf Oliveira, G. H. M., Welch, E. W. (2013). Social media use in local government: Linkage of technology, task, and organizational context. Government Information Quarterly, 30(4), 397-405. https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/44678316/oliveira_and_welch_-_social_media_use_in_local_government.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3AExpires=1510812829Signature=nOUtwxQH7swXcIkYjfyQc2YGN9Q%3Dresponse-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DSocial_media_use_in_local_government_Lin.pdf Tiago, M. T. P. M. B., Verssimo, J. M. C. (2014). Digital marketing and social media: Why bother?. Business Horizons, 57(6), 703-708. https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/35792235/Digital_Marketing_and_Social_Media___Why_bother.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3AExpires=1510812881Signature=0W8ijS9yBNqIFmJkLxBgk%2Bloj08%3Dresponse-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DDigital_Marketing_and_Social_Media_Why_b.pdf Treem, J. W., Leonardi, P. M. (2013). Social media use in organizations: Exploring the affordances of visibility, editability, persistence, and association. Annals of the International Communication Association, 36(1), 143-189. https://www.coris.uniroma1.it/sites/default/files/13.19.56_social%20media%20in%20organizations.pdf